OURS PASTS VI - NCERT notes

OURS PASTS VI
1
• In Sulaiman and Kirthar hills people 1st began to grow crops wheat, barley about 8000 years ago.
• Agriculture 1st developed in Garo hills and Vindhyas. Rice was 1st grown in North of Vindhyas.
• In ancient times the area to the south of Ganga is know as Magadha.
• The Iranians & Greeks called the people Hindhos or Indos, & the land to the east of the river was called India.
• Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the North West (mentioned in Rigveda), later it was used for a country.
• Birch trees bark used for writing manuscripts, grows in Himalayas.
• Instead of BC & AD, sometimes we use CE and BCE meaning Common Era and Before Common Era. BP meaning Before Present is also used.
• Decipherment is a process in which Historians read the scripts and languages on inscriptions.

2
• The immense variety of plants in a tropical land like ours meant that gathering plant produce was an extremely important means of obtaining food.
• Paleolithic sites : Bimbetka, Hunsgi, Kurnool caves.
• Neolithic sites : Paiyampalli, Koldihwa, Mahagara, Chirand, Daojali Hading, Mehrgarh, Burzahom.
• Megalithic sites : Brahmagiri, Adichamallur. Early village : Inamgoan
• Habitation site : Bhimbetka, Madhyapradesh. Traces of ash found in Kurnool caves.
• Around 1200 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the world, with a shift to relatively warm conditions, leading to the development of grasslands.
• Increase in the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep made hunters, gatherers followed these animals and know about the food habits and breeding seasons of animals and they started herding and finally agriculture.
• The age of environmental change of 12000 years to 10000 years ago was Mesolithic age and stone tools of this period called microliths.
• Paleolithic periods cover 99% of human history.

3
• Burzahom, Kashmir people built pit houses and cooking hearths inside & outside of houses.
• Mehrgarh located in a fertile plain near Bolan Pass, imp route to Iran. Here 1st time people know to grow barley, wheat & rear goats, sheep. Remains of square houses, with 4 compartments. Buried persons with animals found here.
• Daojali Hading on the hills near the Brahmaputra valley, close to routes to China and Myanmar, mortar and pestles stone tools found here. Includes Jadeite, a stone bought from China.

4
• Many of the Harappan cities divided into 2 parts, usually western part was smaller, higher(citadel).
• Eastern lower part was called lower town.
• Mahenjodaros Great bath was built on the citadel.
• Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.
• Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Lothal had elaborate store houses.
• Rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones and other things.
• Scribes, people who helped to prepare seals.
• Most of the things of Harappan cities made of stone, shell, metal of copper, bronze, gold and silver. Beads, blades and weights are striking finds.
• Pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.
• Spindle whorls made of terracotta and faience used to spin thread.
• Faience was used to make beads, bangles earings and tiny vessels.
• Sand or powdered quartz was made into a shape by gum, glazed to a glassy surface and they are of usually blue or sea green colored.
• Harappans probably got copper from Rajasthan, Oman and Tin from Afghanistan, Gold from Karnataka, precious stones from Gujrat, Iran and Afghanistan.
• Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard. Plough was used, irrigation was used. Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo.
• They collected fruits like ber, cought fish and hunted wild animals like antelope.
• Dolavira, located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch, with fresh water and fertile soil, the site divided with 3 parts. Each part was surrounded by massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways. Large open area for public ceremony, large letters of Harappan script carved on white stone, inlaid in wood.
• Lothal stood beside a tributary of Sabarmathi, in Gujarath close to Gulf of Kambhat. Dockyard, store house with seals and sealings.
• Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the cities. Writing, seals, weights were no longer used. Raw materials from far become rare.
• In Mohenjodaro garbage piled up on the streets, the drainage system broke down, new less impressive streets were built, even over the streets. Not clear reason for this. Drying up of river, deforestation due to heavy cattle, sheep or may be due to flood.

5
• There are 4 Vedas. Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Veda. Rig veda is the oldest, composed about 3500 years ago.
• Rig veda include more than a thousand hymns called Suktas, which are in praise of various gods and goddesses composed by sages. Rigveda is in Old Sanskrit or Vedic Sanskrit.
• Agni, Indra and Soma gods were important.
• There are many prayers in the Rigveda for cattle, children(sons) and horses. Horses were yoked to chariots that were used in battles, which were fought to capture cattle.
• Priests sometimes called Brahmins and the rajas. Rajas are not kings, and sons didn’t succeed them.
• Jana & vish word used to describe community or the people. Purujana, Yadujana etc.
• Sometimes the people who composed the hymns called themselves as Aryas and their opponents Dasayas/Dasyus.
• Stone boulders, megaliths were used to mark burial sites, which was began about 3000 years ago. Dead were buried with distinctive pots (Black and Red Ware), gold, weapons.
• In Brahmagiri, one skeleton buried with 33 gold beads, 4 copper bangles, conch shell.
• Inamgoan, on river Ghod a tributary of Bhima, adults were buried in the ground, laid out straight, with the head towards North.

6. KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC
• Some of the Rajas probably chosen by Jana, we find some changes in the way in which the Rajas were chosen. Some men now became recognized as rajas by performing big sacrifices.
• Ashwamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. Raja was a central figure in there ritual, he had a special seat, his charioteer witnessed his exploits. His wives and sons had to perform minor rituals. Priest sprinkles the sacred water on the King. The ordinary people vish, brought the gifts. Shudras, were excluded from many rituals.
• The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognized as being rajas of Janapadas rather than janas. The word janapadas literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down.
• Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these Janapadas, such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapur near Meerut, Atranjikhera near Etah, UP. They found that people lived in huts, kept cattle, grew variety of crops, made earthen pots (PGW).
• Janapadas become more important and became Mahajanapadas, having a capital city, many of these were fortified. Some of the Mahajanapadas were Ghandhara as Taxila capital, Avanti as Ujjain, Kuru as Hastinapur, Kosala, Magadha as Rajagriha, Vajji as Vaishali, Anga and many more.
• Bhaga or share tax was 1/6th of the produce. Craftsmen have to work for one day in month for the king as tax.
• Use of Iron ploughshare, clayey soil is also ploughed. People began transplanting paddy. Dasas and dasis, kammakaras do this back breaking work.
• Magadha was important janapada during this period. Ganga, Son river flow through this, which became important for transport, water supplies and making land fertile. Elephants nearby forest captured and trained for army.
• Bimbisara and Ajatasattu were two powerful rulers. Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. Rajagriha (Rajgir)in Bihar was capital of Magadha for several years, later shifted to Pataliputra (Patna).
• Vajji under Vaishali (Bihar) under different form of government, Gana or Sangha, where thousands of men ruled together, each one is known as raja. Buddha and Mahavira belongs to Ganas or Sanghas. Chaitya (local shrines) were maintained in towns and villages.
• Digha Nikaya a famous Buddhist book containes speeches of Buddha. Story of Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice.

7. NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS
• 2500 years ago, there was rapid change in the lives of the people. Many thinker were trying to understand the changes in society, find out the true meaning of life. At this time Siddharatha, Gautama the founder of Buddhism was born.
• Buddha belonged to small Sakhya gana and was a kshatriya. He left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He finally find his own path to realization and meditated for days under peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightment. He taught for the first time at Saranatha near Varanasi. Passed away at Kusinara.
• Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness, because we have cravings and desires. This is as thirst or tanha. His teaching were in language of the people Prakrit. He encouraged them to think for themselves rather than simply accept what he said.
• Some other people wanted to know life after death, sacrifice prominence and found that there is something permanent in the universe that would last even after death called atman or individual soul and Brahman or the universal soul. Finally believing that atman and Brahman were one. Many of their ideas recorded in Upanishads, Later Vedic Texts.
• Upanishads literally meaning ‘approaching and sitting near’ and the text contain conversation between teachers and students, ideas were presented through simple dialogues.
• Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially Brahmins and rajas. Gargi, women participated in debates in royal courts. Satyakama Jabala, named after his mother, the slave women in Jabali. He was accepted as a student by a Brahmin Gautama, and became the best known thinker of his time.
• Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.
• The most famous thinker of Jainism Vardhamana Mahavira also spread message around his time 2500 years ago. Being kshatriya prince of Lichchavis, he left home and went to live in a forest for 12 years and attained enlightenment.
• Mahavira taught simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave home, follow very strictly rules of ahimsa. He used Prakrit language. (Prakrit spoken in Magadha called Magadhi)
• Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it difficult to follow. Written form of Jainism after several years now available in Valabhi, Gujrath.
• The rules made for the Budhist Sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka, citing there were separate branches for men and women. They have to lead a simple life and go to villages to beg for food, so they are called Bhikshus.
• Monasteries built as a shelter for monks known as Viharas.

8 ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR
• The empire Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called The Arthashastra.
• Important cities Pataliputra, Taxila and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the Northwest, including Central Asia.
• In the empire messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. Emperor supervised all of them with the help of members of royal family and senior ministers.
• Arthashastra tells us that the northwest was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones.
• Ashoka was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions, which were in Prakrit language and Brahmi Script. As a father Ashoka tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teaching of Buddha.
• There were many problems in his kingdoms like, people of different religions, animal sacrifice, ill treatment of slaves and servants, quarrels in families and neighbours. He felt it was his duty to solve these problems and appointed Dhamma mahamatta who taught dhamma.
• He sent messengers to spread the ideas of Dhamma to Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka.

9 VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS

• Use of Iron began in the subcontinent 3000 years ago. Largest collection of Iron tools and weapons were found in Megalithic burials.
• There were at least 3 different kinds of people living in most villages in southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large land owners Vellalar, ordinary ploughmen Uzhavar and landless labourers including slaves Kadaisiyar and Adimai were living.
• Northern part of the country the village headman Grama Bhojaka being the largest land owners. Grihapatis, smaller landowners, dasas and karmakara, who did not own land.
• Jatakas were the stories composed by ordinary people, written and preserved by Buddhist monks.
• Mathura was an important settlement since it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade – from the northwest to the east and from north to south, it was a centre for fine sculpture.
• Around 2000 years ago Mathura became the second capital of Kushanas. It was also a religious centre – there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina Shrines and it was an important center for the worship of Krishna.
• Archaeological evidence for crafts, including extremely fine pottery known as Northern Black Ware NBW, getting its name from the fact that it is found in the Northern part of the subcontinent, usually black in colour and has a fine sheen.


10 TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS
• South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire so much that it was known as black gold. This trade brought many roman coins in South India.
• Muvendars 3 chiefs who controlled river valleys and coasts and became rich and powerful.
• Around 200 years later a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful and most imp ruler was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed by his mother Gautami Balashri. Satavahana rulers were known as Dakshinapatha.
• Some people from china walked to distant lands carrying loads of silk, and the route is called Silk Route. Kushans controlled Silk Route.
• Kushans major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila imp city. Kushans were earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue gold coins.
• Kanishka, most famous ruler of Kushans organized a Buddhist council, where scholars meet and discussed imp matters. Ashwaghosha, poet who composed biography of Buddha (Buddhacharita) lived in his court.
• A new form of Buddhism Mahayana developed now. From now onwards statue of Buddha made, instead of Buddha depicting through signs. (Empty throne). 2nd change was belief in Bodhisattavas, persons who attained enlightment.
• The older form of Budhism, Theravada Buddhism.
• Fa Xian, Xuan Zang and I Qing Chinese Buddhist Pilgrims. Xuan Zang took Statues of Buddha made of Gold, silver and sandalwood and over 600 manuscripts. Over 50 manuscripts lost crossing Indus. He studied in Nalanda, most famous Buddhis monastery of the period.
11 NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS
• We know Samudragupta from a long inscription, actually a poem in Sanskrit composed by his court poet Harisena which was inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar at Allahabad.
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• Timeline

• Beginning of agriculture 8000 years ago.
• 1st cities on the Indus 4700 years ago.
• Cities on Ganga valley, a big kingdom in Magadha 2500 years ago.
• The Mesolithic period 12000 to 10000 years ago.
• The beginning of the Neolithic period 10000 years ago.
• Beginning of the composition of Vedas 3500 years ago.
• Beginning of the building of Megaliths 3000 years ago.
• Settlement at Inamgoan 2700 years ago.
• New kinds of rajas 3000 years ago.
• Mahajanapadas 2500 years ago.
• Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Diga Nikaya 2300 years ago
• End of Ganas or Sanghas 1500 years ago.